Reformation and Counter Reformation: Summary
The Catholic Christian tradition was so significantly challenged by the Reformation that the face of the Church was forever changed. Despite the challenges that at that time confronted the Church, it proved to be resilient and was able to change and survive them.
The unexpected disturbance came through the unwitting Martin Luther who was the central figure of the Reformation. He was an Augustinian monk and professor of theology when he became distressed at what he perceived to be rampant corruption in the Church and the errors that underlay the corruption. He felt that greedy Church officials who were persuaded that paying for penances and indulgences would ensure their place in heaven were exploiting ordinary Christians. Posting his now famous 'Ninety-five Theses' on the door of the Wittenberg Church was a standard means of opening theological discussion, and Luther had little idea that this action would set in motion a round of events that would lead to his eventual dismissal from the Church. Luther's recourse to the authority of scripture was not able to withstand the authority of the Pope, and he was excommunicated in 1521. Luther believed that believers were justified by faith, that the pious practices encouraged by the Church would not enable people to obtain eternal life and that the scripture held prime authority over any other. He also believed in the autonomy of the individual conscience - another belief that challenged the Church. At this time the authority of the Church was paramount to its princes, so they saw Luther, and the subsequent reformers, as undermining their authority and therefore God's own. The Church resisted Luther's calls for reform but his voice was not the only one calling for change.
After Luther came the reformers John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli and then the break with the Church in England. Christianity had split apart, and the Church of Rome needed to respond with more than the expulsion of loyal members who disagreed with it. The Catholic Reformation (also known as the Counter-Reformation) was the response. It included many genuine and successful efforts to address the real problems of the Church, one of the major ones being the formation of some new religious congregations, all formed with the intention of restoring the dignity and true piety of the faith. One of these congregations was the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), which was begun in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola. The society brought a new uniformity and discipline to education, and was active in missionary activity. Along with other congregations, it was pronounced in their prayer practices, and their piety represented some spiritual renewal for the Church.
The Council of Trent represents another aspect of the Catholic Reformation: it was defensive against the attacks of Protestants and was largely about guarding against further attacks. Although the council resulted in some reforms to Church practices, such as the introduction of seminary training for priests, it also responded negatively to almost all the complaints of the Protestants. The outcome was that the divisions between Catholics and Protestants were set firmly in concrete, and they remained that way until the Council of Vatican II. The Roman Church's resilience was severely tested by the reformers and it reacted to the Reformation in a mixture of ways. While some positive reforms were made, leading to some genuine changes in pious practices, the Council of Trent exemplifies the Church's overall resilience to change. The Church became something of a fortress defending itself against outside influences and its reliance to them was reinforced in the face of the challenges of the Reformation period
The unexpected disturbance came through the unwitting Martin Luther who was the central figure of the Reformation. He was an Augustinian monk and professor of theology when he became distressed at what he perceived to be rampant corruption in the Church and the errors that underlay the corruption. He felt that greedy Church officials who were persuaded that paying for penances and indulgences would ensure their place in heaven were exploiting ordinary Christians. Posting his now famous 'Ninety-five Theses' on the door of the Wittenberg Church was a standard means of opening theological discussion, and Luther had little idea that this action would set in motion a round of events that would lead to his eventual dismissal from the Church. Luther's recourse to the authority of scripture was not able to withstand the authority of the Pope, and he was excommunicated in 1521. Luther believed that believers were justified by faith, that the pious practices encouraged by the Church would not enable people to obtain eternal life and that the scripture held prime authority over any other. He also believed in the autonomy of the individual conscience - another belief that challenged the Church. At this time the authority of the Church was paramount to its princes, so they saw Luther, and the subsequent reformers, as undermining their authority and therefore God's own. The Church resisted Luther's calls for reform but his voice was not the only one calling for change.
After Luther came the reformers John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli and then the break with the Church in England. Christianity had split apart, and the Church of Rome needed to respond with more than the expulsion of loyal members who disagreed with it. The Catholic Reformation (also known as the Counter-Reformation) was the response. It included many genuine and successful efforts to address the real problems of the Church, one of the major ones being the formation of some new religious congregations, all formed with the intention of restoring the dignity and true piety of the faith. One of these congregations was the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), which was begun in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola. The society brought a new uniformity and discipline to education, and was active in missionary activity. Along with other congregations, it was pronounced in their prayer practices, and their piety represented some spiritual renewal for the Church.
The Council of Trent represents another aspect of the Catholic Reformation: it was defensive against the attacks of Protestants and was largely about guarding against further attacks. Although the council resulted in some reforms to Church practices, such as the introduction of seminary training for priests, it also responded negatively to almost all the complaints of the Protestants. The outcome was that the divisions between Catholics and Protestants were set firmly in concrete, and they remained that way until the Council of Vatican II. The Roman Church's resilience was severely tested by the reformers and it reacted to the Reformation in a mixture of ways. While some positive reforms were made, leading to some genuine changes in pious practices, the Council of Trent exemplifies the Church's overall resilience to change. The Church became something of a fortress defending itself against outside influences and its reliance to them was reinforced in the face of the challenges of the Reformation period
The Council of Trent
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Impacts of the Council of Trent
The internal impacts of the Council of Trent for the Roman Catholicism were many. There was a re-established stability along traditional lines with strength of leadership in the three fold ministry of bishop, priests and deacon affirmed and the papacy reinvigorated. Priests were to be properly trained and bishops were to live in their diocese and the curia were given governance roles in Rome. The documentation that grew out of Trent included Tridentine Missal, which standardised prayer in a Latin form for the next four centuries. The Catechism of Trent provided a counter question/answer approach to Catholicism that was to be adapted into greater and lesser catechisms that would be used as a primary approach to the propagation of the faith. The birth of religious orders like the Jesuits was a spiritual response to the new order but Catholicism became increasing insular in its confidence that it was the only true religion. Roman Catholicism grew in strength but was inward looking in most respects other than in the search for new souls to be baptised and saved in the new worlds of Asia and the Americas.
The impact of the Council for society was profound as the religious map of Europe was to radically change in a generation. The political outcome of the 30 year war 1618-1648 and the peace of Westphalia established a Europe that no longer needed papal approval for international political decisions. Roman Catholicism stood against orthodox faith in the east and protestant churches to the north. Protestantism would be exported around the globe as the European colonisation expanded the western world. This religio-social effect of the council was to create new pressure papal authority. The traditional influence of the papacy on the internal power plays in the emerging European nations was diminishing. This was so, even in Catholic countries. The tide of reason was sweeping Europe and the enlightenment was placing pressure on all aspects of society but particularly on the traditional notions of sovereignty and papal supremacy.
The relationship of Roman Catholicism to other religious communities was cemented by the council of Trent. After 1563 the division was irretrievable and the protesters were individually and collective anathematised. Hostilities over all aspects of the now diverse variants of the Christian tradition belied their common heritage in the life of Christ and his disciples across the generations. Protestants claimed all authority for the holy text (Sola scriptura) whereas Roman proclaimed authority resided in scripture as well as in the tradition of the church. Protestants worshipped within a sacramental economy of two or less sacraments in the language of the people whereas Catholics affirmed seven sacraments celebrated in Latin. Protestants focused on a priesthood of all peoples but Catholics retained and strengthened a holy, ordained, celibate priesthood. It would be almost 350 years before a growing ecumenical movement could begin a process of healing within Christianity. That ecumenical journey would eventually be affirmed in the documents of Vatican II.
The internal impacts of the Council of Trent for the Roman Catholicism were many. There was a re-established stability along traditional lines with strength of leadership in the three fold ministry of bishop, priests and deacon affirmed and the papacy reinvigorated. Priests were to be properly trained and bishops were to live in their diocese and the curia were given governance roles in Rome. The documentation that grew out of Trent included Tridentine Missal, which standardised prayer in a Latin form for the next four centuries. The Catechism of Trent provided a counter question/answer approach to Catholicism that was to be adapted into greater and lesser catechisms that would be used as a primary approach to the propagation of the faith. The birth of religious orders like the Jesuits was a spiritual response to the new order but Catholicism became increasing insular in its confidence that it was the only true religion. Roman Catholicism grew in strength but was inward looking in most respects other than in the search for new souls to be baptised and saved in the new worlds of Asia and the Americas.
The impact of the Council for society was profound as the religious map of Europe was to radically change in a generation. The political outcome of the 30 year war 1618-1648 and the peace of Westphalia established a Europe that no longer needed papal approval for international political decisions. Roman Catholicism stood against orthodox faith in the east and protestant churches to the north. Protestantism would be exported around the globe as the European colonisation expanded the western world. This religio-social effect of the council was to create new pressure papal authority. The traditional influence of the papacy on the internal power plays in the emerging European nations was diminishing. This was so, even in Catholic countries. The tide of reason was sweeping Europe and the enlightenment was placing pressure on all aspects of society but particularly on the traditional notions of sovereignty and papal supremacy.
The relationship of Roman Catholicism to other religious communities was cemented by the council of Trent. After 1563 the division was irretrievable and the protesters were individually and collective anathematised. Hostilities over all aspects of the now diverse variants of the Christian tradition belied their common heritage in the life of Christ and his disciples across the generations. Protestants claimed all authority for the holy text (Sola scriptura) whereas Roman proclaimed authority resided in scripture as well as in the tradition of the church. Protestants worshipped within a sacramental economy of two or less sacraments in the language of the people whereas Catholics affirmed seven sacraments celebrated in Latin. Protestants focused on a priesthood of all peoples but Catholics retained and strengthened a holy, ordained, celibate priesthood. It would be almost 350 years before a growing ecumenical movement could begin a process of healing within Christianity. That ecumenical journey would eventually be affirmed in the documents of Vatican II.